w e b b    ❚❚❚    NASA’s latest space telescope waved goodbye on Christmas morning 2021, travel­ing to its orbital destination, some one million miles (1,609,344-km) from Earth. Upon arriving, the spaceship unpacked itself to become an observatory. The process began with the unfurling of the sun­shield, when 107 pins popped “open in the proper sequence,” as designed. The mirror panels took 24 hours to deploy, with each rotating into position, one at a time, from an “intricate reverse origami” fold. The JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE (2021) then opened its primary eye, and began a new era for astronomy.

  █   The first year is booked solid. An insight into one hundred asteroids so as to “derive the amount of water present” in the Main belt. Weather on Pluto and its giant moon Charon, the original binary system. All 27 moons of Uranus. A look back in Time, some 13.7 billion Earth years, when the Big Bang was one a million years old, in hopes of glimpsing firstgen stars in their cosmic cradles.   █   Webb has a shelf-life. It has no bckups, so failure in any one of 344 parts of the primary mirror can be catastrophic. In the first six months, Webb has been hit by six micro­meteoroids, including on on a C3 mirror, which survived. Webb also runs on fuel, with enough in the tank to last from ten to even 20 years. The fuel is for a motor that, periodicaly, turns on to reposition the telescope to look elsewhere. After the fact, a plan for remote servicing missions is now in the works.   █   The images Webb captures is a spectrum setting, in spectroscopy, that makes space dust disappear: welcome to infrared astronomy. As Dr Rebecca Allen explained: “Both near and far, where planets and stars are formed, there’s heaps of dust. Dust is annoying because it loves to absorb the bright light coming from stars, shrouding our view of these important regions and even making distant galaxies harder to see. But this light is re-emitted at longer wavelengths that Webb will be able to see.”   █   Author Paola Santini finds the words:

“This is a whole new chapter in astronomy. It’s like an archeological dig, and suddenly you find a lost city or something you didn’t know about.” Santini might be referring to the Phantom Galaxy, and a suppose-to-be black hole in the center; instead, what Webb saw was a spinning wormhole.

i n d i a    ❚❚❚    When India’s 2023 Moon mission landed in the lunar south pole, people had been praying, and partying, for its success going on for days. When the lander reached the surface, it released Pragyan (sanskrit for ‘wisdom’), a six-wheeled mini-rover, which went sightseeing and reported back the detection of sulfur. The previous mission in 2019 was just about to land when it was hit by a cyberattack and crashed; this might explain the giddiness five years later on the successful Mars landing. Giddiness can be contagious, and in 2023 the INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION, DEPARTMENT OF SPACE (1969) announced a crewed mission for the future, and its own space station by 2035.

u a e    ❙❙❙    Soon after the president of the United Arab Emirates created a space industry by decree, it became a signatory to the Artemis Accords. Soon afterwards, on the 50th anniversary of its creation, UAE successfully launched a 2022 spaceship to Mars, for a years-long mission to take fotos and to make a comprehensive map. The UNITED ARAB EMIRATES SPACE AGENCY (2014) has also bought a passenger ticket for a mini-rover to go the Moon, and has plans on traveling to the Main belt, doing seven asteroid flybys before landing on the eighth.

c h i n a    ❙•❙    Using methane as a propellant, China did a successful test launch, in July 2023, of a 164-foot rocket, beating out Blue Origin, Rocket Lab, Relativity Space , SpaceX, and United Launch Alliance, in the quest for a viable nextgen spaceship. Five months later, a satellite was launched using the same fuel.

  █   China’s second (the first had failed) lunar mission arrived in 2019 and landed, grew a plant. A year later, a third mission landed and looked around, planted a flag, flew home.   █   A 2020 rocket took off for a roundtrip to Mars; after dropping off an orbiter, lander and rover (to look for water), the rocket came home.

  █   China joined the space age in 1970 by launching a satellite. From there they became the CHINA NATIONAL SPACE ADMIN­IS­TRA­TION (1970), which oversees the China Manned Space Agency, a subsidiary division.   █   The ISS partner­ship in 1998 might have included China if the 112th U.S. Congress had not banned NASA from engaging with China, where the space program is a military exercise.   █   So China went ahead and built its own space station, Tiangong-1, which had a shelf-life of just five years, and shut down. The death plunge took 24 more months, spinning and twitching, out of control. The crash when it happened killed no humans. Astrophysicist Brad Tucker was nearby: “It could have been better obviously, if it wasn’t tumbling, but it landed in the south­ern Pacific Ocean and that’s kind of where you hope it would land. It’s been tum­bling and spinning for a while, which means that when it really starts to come down it’s less predictable about what happens to it.”

  █   Beginning in 2016, China sent a string of missions to build the second space station. Construction crew rotated on six-month tours, and by mid-2021 the station was partially functional. Weighing in at 66 tons, Tiangong-2 is a twig compared to the 465-ton ISS. The capacity for six, divided between three-person teams on six-month assignments.

e u r o p e     e   s   a     When the Second World War ended, in 1945, dispersed remnants of European aeronautical societies kept in contact, and found enough momentum by 1975 that they partnered for a “cohesive approach to space”, as a multi-national space entity.   █   In February 2022, when Russia invaded Ukraine, the EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (1968) immediately abandoned plans with Russia on a mission to Mars. ESA director general Joseph Aschbacher explained: “I think the war in Ukraine has made politicians realize that we are a bit vulnerable and we have to make sure that we have our own secured access to space and our space infrastructure.” Eight days before war broke out, French president Emmanuel Macron had cautioned: “There is no full power or autonomy without managing space. Without (it) you can’t conquer new frontiers or even control your own.”

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  █   Hera is a follow-up mission to find out what happened when NASA went to the Main belt in 2021 and fired a shot at asteroid moon Dimorphos, to test an asteroid-defense system.

j a p a n    ❚•❚     By the end of the 1960s, there were three space research laboratories in Japan: aviation; rocket and satellite development; and planetary exploration. Realizing they were complementary disciplines, all three came together under one roof and in 2003 became the JAPAN AEROSPACE EXPLORATION AGENCY (2013). Today, JAXA is a daring space agency employing innovative methods.

  █   Like hooking up the Japanese Experiment Module (Jem) to the ISS in 2007, an ‘exposed facility’ dedicated to conducting experiments in zero gravity: scien­tific, medical, edu­ca­tion­al, to see how they behave in space; as well as the consequences of exposure to cosmic and other rays.

  █   Like shooting an asteroid to find out what happens (can it change coure). In 2004, Haya­busa-2 reached the asteroid Ryugu and fired a ballistic missle, creating a new crater and exposing underlying stuff. A lander was released to gather up 0.19-oz (5-gr) of soil into an envelope, and flung the mail back down to Earth, where it landed nd was found (“looks like charcoal”) in December 2020.   █   JAXA has plans for a 2024 flight to the martian moon Phobos, for a five-year mission to gather data and soil, then fly home. JAXA scientists believe about 0.1% of the surface soil on Phobos came from Mars.   █   In 2010, a seven-year mission to go to the Main belt and return with samples from an asteroid took off. The asteroid that Hayabusa-1 found was given the name Itokawa, a salute to Hideo Itokawa (b.1935), a graduate in aeronautics who launched a small rocket over Kokubunji, a suburb of Tokyo, in 1955, to inaugurate space-age Japan.

i s s   █   Russia’s war on Ukraine in 2022 put an end to the culture that had existed in the INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION. Forty days into the war, Russia gave notice it was severing coop­eration with the ISS, sooner than later. Bbut before the year was over, the new head of Roscosmos, Yury Borisov, released a timeline for ending their partnership with the ISS, after 23 years.   █   In April 2023, NASA announced that Russia will in fact stay on with the ISS, through 2028. The original partnership was to have lasted until the station was retired, in 2030.   █   Russia’s contribution to the ISS is enormous. It’s module Zvezda provides the primary source of power. It sends up rocketships to push the station back up, because gravity, to its ideal orbital des­ti­nation. Resupply runs, a regular feature of life in the ISS, had been possible only because of Russian rocket know-how; United Launch Alliance, meanwhile, is working on achieving a similar heft using their own thruster, while SpaceX already has.   █   Fully assembled, the station has become a maze of sixteen interconnected modules. The station is serviced, since 2015, by three robots on the outside, capable of independent or con­joined assignments. The ISS is a 1998 partnership of fifteen found­ing nations, covering legal, finan­cial and political implications in how the station is utilized. There is also a five-nation team to coor­di­nate day-to-day, direct traffic routes, assign crew time.   █   The station is old and it shows, 25+ years of being out in the cold has led to “torsional strains, temper­ature impacts, micrometeoroid wounds,” air leaks. When the time comes, NASA will show up and guide the retired space station back into the atmosphere, where it will burn up and disintegrate – a process that will take up to three years. As the ISS begins to lose orbit and gravity reasserts, a final mission will be sent to pick up remaining crew and payloads.

Another spaceship will ‘lasso’ the giant and begin to steer it towards a watery grave, the site chosen is Point Nemo, the ‘spacecraft cemetery’ in the South Pacific.   █   The ISS will be replaced by the 2.0 edition, with better bathrooms, better everything. Modules will come in models: ones capable of uncoupling and becoming autonomous; ones ‘for private visits.’   █   Going forward, waste manage­ment systems will feature ‘a common plat­form’ for all conditions of outer space, aiming ‘to reduce crew time, improve cleanliness, arrive at a reduction in volume and weight of waste.’

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Astronaut 2.0 Jack D. Fischer recalls what it was like in 2017, on the ISS: “Unlike most things, you just can’t train for that on the ground. So I approach my space-toilet activities with respect, preparation and a healthy dose of sheer terror.” Nonetheless, succumbing to temptation, a pizza kit for seven was delivered to the space station in 2022.   █   ZARYA: The era of surrendering to comfort while in zero gravity took place un­ob­tru­sive­ ly in 1988, as the first module of the future International Space Station arrived at its orbital destination, 250-mi (400-km) above the Earth. The Russian-built Zarya was designed to be self-contained and act as “an autonomous space habitat for eight months,” because the second module wouldn’t show up until then. This mini space station was powered by six nickel-cadium batteries, two solar arrays, and had three docking ports. Oxygen circulated from a pressurized valve unit with air ducts, funnel containment filters, dust collectors. There are portable fans, a gas analyzer, a smoke dector, gas masks. The cabin comes with a pole, handrails, hooks, instrument containers. Waste were channeled through container connections to facilitate contingency transfer of water; with wipes, container bags, and ‘filters.’

a r t e m i s   █   NASA aims for long-term space exploration with other nations, starting with the nearest frontier. Viewing the Moon with rainbow eyes, “principles for a safe, peaceful and prosperous future” is baked into the Artemis Accords (2017), a forum on sensible safeguards for space exploration going forward: transparency; space mining claims; at-large assistance when in need; inventory of launched hardware; comprehensive space-debris plan; mediation in disputes; guidance by space law.   █   Space researcher Lev Zeleny confuses crash with cash: “The moon is the seventh continent of the Earth so we are simply “condemned,” as it were, to tame it.”   █   Astronomer Ed Bloomer softens the blow: “The Moon is largely untouched and the whole history is written on its face, pristine and like nothing you get on Earth. It is its own laboratory.”   █   NASA is is working ideas for staying on the Moon, where the exosphere is at ground level: a habitation and logistics outpost, with docking ports, to be ready sometime in 2027 or 2028.

  █   Signatory nations to the Artemis Accords, an initiative by the United States, as of November 2024, are: Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Poland, Republic of Korea, Romania, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, Uruguay.

a s t r o n a u t   █   The life of an astronaut has gone from spending a few hours in space to spending months on the International Space Station, living life in zero gravity, while traveling 250-mi (400-km) above Earth, in low-Earth orbit, at 5-mi (8-km) per second.

Those coming after them will need to go further, men and women with different skill sets that can make a team to fit the mission, like a background in geology, or ability to operate different crafts. Nonetheless, life without gravity, in an oxygen-free environment, has consequences. Among others, there is bone loss, motion sickness, vitamin deficiency (A, E, C, folic acid, thiamine); regular exposure to unfiltered solar radiation and unknown cosmic rays.   █   ASTRONAUT 3.0: These nextgen astronauts will also be wearing nextgen spacesuits. NASA, for one, is requiring redundancy in the design, whether used for spacewalks, or for terrain on the Moon. Because oxygen, to give one example. They cannot impede ease of movement, because “different gravitational fields, natural space environments, and tasks like floating in microgravity or walking in partial gravity.”

The new wardrobe will be sleeker, lighter, more flexible, and offer protection from elevated radiation exposure. There are built-in tools: navigation aids; in-suit cameras; digital checklist. For spacewalks, a suit might sport blue and red arms. Most importantly, they will come in different sizes and body types. Bodywear is trending to more comfort.

A tighter fit, “to counteract the lack of gravity by squeez­ing the body from the shoulders to the feet with a similar force to that felt on Earth.” Cooler underwear made with breathable fabrics.   █   ASTRONAUT 1.0: Designed to handle crewed lunar missions, these suits had photogenic appeal, yet wardrobe failures happened can happen, leading to leaks, smells and worse while in zero gravity.

n a s a    ❚❚❚    In April 2021, Senator Bill Nelson, ex-astronaut, was sworn in as the 14th administrator of NASA, replacing acting-head Steve Jurczyk, who held the post for ten weeks, when Jim Briden­stine – a pick of Donald Trump who had no formal back­ground in space or science – departed, when Joe Biden won the presidency.    █    Then NASA went ahead and experimented with a viable approach to shielding Earth from a foreseeable future asteroid impact. The Dart mission then left for the Main belt hover over a binary-asteroid system, and conduct a ‘double-asteroid redirection test.’. With the target in its sights, the spaceship then took a potshot smaller rock, Dimorphos, a moon to its primary, asteroid Didymos. The impact had enough force, according to ground control, to have altered the tiny moon’s trajectory, “reducing an ordinarily 12-hour orbit by slightly more than 30 minutes.” A follow-up by ESA is planned (mission Hera), to return to the impact zone and perform forensics, take measurements.

   █    Another mission, which took off in 2022, wants to explore a few trojan asteroids, a rock posse that orbit before, and behind, Jupiter. The Lucy mission carries a long-range reconnaissance imager, which will have a chance to interview participants in the Trojan War, beginning with herald for the Greek army Eurybates (Aug.2027); and daughter of Troy Polymele (Sep.2027). The mission will end in 2033 with a flyby of binary-trojan warriors Menoetius (father to Polymele) and his satellite-son Patroclus.

   █    Back in 1969, NASA had become the first space agency to land men on the Moon, then looked at other frontiers. In 1976, a pair of rockets took off for a one-way journey, and landed on Mars. In 1997 it was a lander with a rover, and Sojourner sent back fotos from the ‘red planet.’ Opportunity did the same when it came in 2004, performing tasks for 14 years until a dust storm choked the rover to death.

In 2011, Curiosity landed and found rare quartz. Insight went in 2018 to gather data on martian earthquakes and tremors, and drilled deep into the soil to test for heat signatures. In 2020, Perseverance was sent to obtain samples, with the understanding that a follow-up mission will bring them back – something unlikely to happen in today’s world.    █    When the Second World War ended in 1945, the United States set in motion a plan to retrieve rocket technology in Europe. Poring over promising plans with red, white & blue eyes, these newly-minted rocketeers went on to create the NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (1958), but nobody calls them by that name.

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c a n a d a    ❚•❚    RCAF, the Royal Canadian Air Force (1924), fought for the Allies in the Second World War, where 17,000 gave their lives flying bombers, fighters, reconnaissance missions, and transport missions around the world.    █    In 1942, Geraldine M. Lascotte wanted to join in winning the war. Cadet ID card for the 1942 Ottawa Air Training Conference: The authorized holder (#431), whose photograph and signature appear hereon, is required to produce this card on entering (signed) commissioner, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. (signature of holder) Geraldine M Lascotte.

   █    When the war ended, Canada had the fourth-largest air force in the world, so continued flying the skies with azure eyes, and in the early 1960s joined the space age by launching a satellite. Today the CANADIAN SPACE AGENCY (1962) is an inclusive cultural entity, and among many incentives for participation, has a school for stem pupils.    █    CSA had built a robot-arm in the 1980s for space-shuttle missions. In 1995, a firstgen Canadarm was unveiled, attached to the Mir space station, and came with two modes: manual and program. It was controlled from inside the station, using direct line-of-sight views plus cameras, or else program­mable on-the-fly for a specific task. The secondgen robot-arm was instrumental in turning the ISS into a structure larger than a football field. A thirdgen is in the works, for Moon-based operations.

s o u t h  a f r i c a    ❙❙❘❙    Early evidence gave credence that Earth behaves like a magnet, and this magnetism plays an “important role in making the planet habitable.” Starting in the core, where molten iron churn, bits flung out cool, and before falling back into the vat, briefly emit “rule-driven electro-magnetic arcs.” Visualized as waves rippling outwards, a shimmering bowtie to greet the Sun.    █    One of the earliest laboratory, set up in 1841 to study Earth’s magnetic field, was on the tip of South Africa.

   █    In 1932, this outpost became part of an international network of magnetic observatories. Then a new electric rail system nearby interfered with measure
ments, and the station was relocated. Today the Her­manus Magnetic Obser­vatory is a part of the University of Cape­town’s department of physics, and continues to participate in South Africa’s space activities.    █    The SOUTH AFRICAN SPACE AGENCY (1978) conducts a fleet of satellites, capable of moni­tor­ing weather activities for all of Africa, providing feedback and forecasts on fires, flooding, droughts, flora, fauna.

r o m a n i a    ❚❚❚    Romania has a storied past of visiting the sky. Traian Vuia (b.1872) startled the Moon with a flyby in 1906, in his “auton­o­mous take-off aeroplane.” Henri Coanda (b.1886) wooed her four years later, in his “jet aeroplane.”

When Fritz Lang (b.1890) was making Woman on the Moon (1929), he brought in Roman­ian rocketeer Her­mann J Oberth (b.1904), to make sure that the look and feel of sequences involving spaceflight in the silent b-&-w scifi space adventure was “authentic.” Today, the storied ROMANIAN SPACE AGENCY (1991) is a signatory to the Artemis Accords, and hosts the annual Yuri’s Night.

r u s s i a    ❚❚❚    When Russia went to war in Ukraine in February 2022, the head of its space program offered to bargain with the International Space Station: “If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an uncontrolled deorbit and fall into the United States or Europe? There is also the option of dropping a 500-ton structure on India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS does not fly over Russia, so all the risks are yours. Are you ready for them?” Then walked back the proposal.    █    Dimitry Rogozin also had a message for Elon Musk (who had sent user terminals to Ukraine, which can tap into Starlink satellites’ internet system), and said : “Elon Musk, thus, is involved in supplying the fascist forces in Ukraine with military communication equipment. And for this, Elon, you will be held accountable like an adult – no matter how much you’ll play the fool.”

   █    R0SC0SMOS, the Russian Federal Space Agency (1993), was not yet finished. On the same day they cancelled a contract to launch British-owned satellites, March 2 2022, a rumor spread that hackers had taken down Roscosmos’s control center, and had boasted about it online: “The Russian Space Agency sure does love their satellite imaging. Better yet, they sure do love their Vehicle Monitoring System.”

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   █    Then, in August 2023, Roscosmos sent a spaceship to the Moon’s south pole, with the intention of landing and taking home samples. Instead, with minutes to go before touchdown, Lunar-25 crashed, due to a faulty on/off command, and added a new crater on the Moon. The head of Roscosmos pinpointed the reason: “The negative experience of interrupting the lunar program for almost 50 years is the main reason for the failures.”    █    In 1967, Russia set up a program, Interkosmos, to share their space technology with socialist-friendly countries allied to the Warsaw Pact, and later on to similar comrades.

      D L R 

g e r m a n y     D L R     In 1907, when mechanic Ludwig Prandtl (b.1875) set up a rudimentary aerodynamic lab and began conducting experiments, Germany’s semi-fictions of space began to turn into fact. This line of inquiry caused interest from a society, an association, an institution, and a consortium. Together they studied the science of flight, in hopes of building the perfect airship. These efforts were repurposed during the Second World War.   █   When the war ended, aviators, generals, researchers, coders, scientists, others, resumed research for a propulsive physics, as a newly-minted space society. Today its name is GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER (1969), Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), a state campus for energy, transport, and aerospace research.

  █   In 1945, in the final days of fighting, astronomer Gerard Kuiper (b.1905) drove an Allied jeep into Göttingen, Germany, and brought back to safety theoretical physicist Max Planck (b.1858), who was 87 years old at that time, researching into how atoms (matter) and sub-atoms (light) are governed, and many were paying attention.

i t a l y    ❚ ❙ ❚    In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei (b.1564) started the practise of looking at the night sky with telescopic eyes; he polished lenses and built his telescopes. Looking at the 1609 Moon, Galileo was to first to notice that the unexplained varied lighting bathing it”s surface was being caused by mountains and craters. Today, his notes are a part of the ITALIAN SPACE AGENCY (1988), which opened next door to the Vatican, and delves into habitable space infractures and all things gamma-ray related. Gamma rays come from radioactive decay happening at the sub-atomic level, it is the most potent form of photon energy, can penetrate matter, and terrestrial thunderstorms can produce it.

r o m a n    ❚❚❚    NASA has a follow-up to Webb. When ready, their latest space telescope will travel some one million miles (1.609,344-km) up, to its orbital destination. The NANCY GRACE ROMAN SPACE TELESCOPE is a super-sized descendant to Hubble, able to look for exoplanets, and to inter­ro­gate dark matter, a previously unknown substance in the Universe.

  █   The new space telescope is named for Nancy Grace Roman (b.1925), NASA’s first chief of astronomy. Growing up on the outskirts of town, under the night sky, she learned: “In Reno, Nev., of course, the skies were very clear, a beautiful place to observe the sky, and we lived on the edge of the city at the time. We learned the constellations, read astronomy. I just never lost my interest in it.” Roman later earned a degree in astronomy, and joined NASA a year after it was founded, in 1946. Upon retiring, she taught astronomy to fifth graders. The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope is set to launch in 2027.

  █   The existence of dark matter is implied by gravitational effects, which cannot be explained using general relativity alone - unless there is more matter present than can be seen. Dark matter is thought to permeate all of space, each smaller than a subatomic particle, each an axion, which treats the Earth as a porous object, and billions per square inch per second course through the planet. If true, the Universe contains six times more axions than it does atoms, and cosmologist Andrew Pontzen says: “You can imagine a scenario where dark matter particles turn out to be so incredibly weak at interacting with normal matter that our detectors will never see anything.”   █   Roman is a descendant to the Hubble space telescope, the first large optical telescope in orbit, and named for astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble (b.1889), who had studied the work of Henrietta Leavitt and in 1925 produced a clas­si­fi­ca­tion system for galaxies. In 1924, using a 100-inch telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory (1904), Hubble and colleague George Ellery Hale observed individual stars some 800,000 light-years away; then billions of light-years away. Henrietta Swan Leavitt (b.1868), trained in mathematics, began working in the Harvard Observator as a human computer in 1893, and was given the task of measuring distances in space; she would end up creating a standard ruler used to measure the Universe.